A Basic Introduction to African Shamanism

Shamen of South Africa

A General Overview of African Shamanism

Shamanism in Africa encompasses a wide range of beliefs, principals, and mechanisms of healing that have been practiced on the vast continent for thousands of years. The healing system is based in a long history of traditional belief that ancestral spirits are constantly present among the living and intervene in their doings (Turner, 887). The role of the shaman is therefore to mediate these spirits when their intervention results in affliction within society. This mediation usually comes in ritual form unique to each culture, including song, drumming, clapping, dance, trance, the use of medicines, and a variety of other performances (Turner, 887). The process of mastery that the shaman undergoes in order to achieve knowledge and communication with the spirits, and ultimately be guided in healing, is a long and arduous journey that begins with his fascinating and often painful initiation. Each of these basic facets of shamanism in Africa will be covered in greater length throughout the introduction of this work, but the understanding of how they are actually applied today will come from the analyses of various shamanic healing systems in the context of modern African societies.

The History of Shamanism in Africa

            

            In order to fully understand the modern uses of Shamanism in Africa, it’s important to first examine the ancient practices from which they originated. Shamanism as a practiced healing system is currently believed to have originated during the Neolithic Age, around 4,000 BC, though there is still much debate about the exact date (some archaeologists suggest evidence for Shamanic trances date as far back as the Paleolithic era) (Whitley, 17). In South Africa, archaeologists have discovered rock art believed to have originated from the San culture around 3,300 BC. The lineage of this culture dates back nearly 60,000 years, and still persists in South Africa today (also known as Bushmen, !Kung, Basarwa, etc.) (Bradshaw Foundation). The rock art itself depicts what is known in San culture today as “the Great Dance”, a shamanic trance dance used in healing, hunting, and relieving societal tensions. The art also features otherworldly creatures such as rain-animals, monsters and spirit people that are encountered by dancers on their out-of-body vision journeys (Bradshaw Foundation). These images thus depict shared aspects of shamanic belief that have persevered through time and are still practiced today: the use of dance ritual, the mediating of spirits, the spirit journey itself, all evoked in the effort of healing. The earliest evidence of Shamanism in Africa reflects healing principals that have spread throughout the continent, adapted to create unique systems in various African societies.

Basic Belief System

            “In the understanding of most Africans, God created the world and gave the most active part…to the spirits” (Turner, 887). These spirits, which take many forms depending on the specific society, are typically ancestral and thus govern the proceedings of their Earthly world kin. This is the fundamental aspect of most belief systems in Africa, and is crucial to understanding how ideas of illness and healing are formed. As described in Shamanism: An Encyclopedia of World Beliefs, Practices and Culture,

 “…for most Africans, illness is caused not only by infections and other medical conditions but by spiritual trouble, brought about by the dissatisfaction of the ancestors (still alive and active) with the ways of the living” (Turner, 887).

Therefore, spirits must be respected by the living and when dissatisfied, an individual who is invulnerable to their power and recognized as a spiritual equal must handle them. This is the role a shaman takes, as described by Mercia Eliade in his work, Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy:

“The shaman controls his ‘spirits’, in the sense that he, a human being, is able to communicate with the dead, “demons” and “nature spirits”, without thereby becoming their instrument” (6).

Thus, the role of a shaman is crucial in that he is the only mediator between the spirit world, the source of illness and affliction, and the patient who suffers from it. This sentiment of shaman as intercessor implies that he has the power to reverse the afflictions caused by spirits as well through his mediations, as is echoed in African Therapeutic Systems:

“In most of the essays the authors indicate the dominant belief in the spiritual causation of diseases and other ailments…since most of the people believe that spirits cause disease they also see treatment and cure as obviously within the realm of the spiritual or supernatural” (1).

The implication then is that, because the shaman is the only individual who can access the realm of the spiritual, he is the sole individual endowed with the knowledge of healing. As we will see, this healing takes many forms, all of which are brought about with the guidance of the spirits.

            Secondly, there is a belief in some African societies that individuals have the power to use witchcraft against other members of the community. This witchcraft may invoke malevolent spirits or merely put a curse on the object of that individual’s dissatisfaction, often causing disease or illness. The shaman thus uses his connection with the spirits to heal the afflicted individual and restore harmony to the community.

The Initiation of the Shaman

            The initiation of a Shaman varies widely throughout various African societies. However, there are a few aspects of this process that seem to hold as universals such as the shamanic initiation through cured illness or spiritually guided dreams. Firstly, grave illnesses seem to be a sign of a potential future shaman in many healing systems. If the shaman survives the illness, he is though to have been aided through the process by the help of a spirit who has come to guide him. Eliade describes this same process:

“The primitive magician, the medicine man, or the shaman is not only a sick man; he is, above all, a sick man…who has succeeded in curing himself.” Thus, “the election of a shaman is manifested by a comparatively serious illness, usually coincidental with the onset of sexual maturity…[and] cured in the end with the help of the same spirits that will later become his tutelary’s and helpers” (28).

The most important aspect of this type of initiation is that the aid of the spirits in curing the shaman demonstrates their willingness to provide him with the knowledge of healing.

Secondly, shamanic initiation often comes about by an initial dream in which a spirit guide comes to the young individual and initiates a process of teaching that will take place throughout the course of many dreams. This teaching includes knowledge of the spiritual way of life, instructions on which herbs to gather for medicinal purposes, rituals for treating the sick, and most importantly, bestows powers of healing. Thus, Eliade sums up the general initiation practices and their importance for the future relationship between shaman and spirit guide:

“We have seen that the future shaman’s vocation can be precipitated-in dreams, ecstasy, or during illness-by a chance encounter with a semi-divine being, the soul of an ancestor or of an animal…Usually such an encounter begins a familiarity between the future shaman and the spirit that has determined his career” (81).

This familiarity will prove crucial as the shaman consults the spirit guides throughout his healing practices.

            Another aspect that is found in some societies but is not a universal theme is that the future shaman stays within the same lineage as the previous shaman. Thus it is sometimes pre-ordained for a young individual to become a future healer, and so when they show signs of a spiritual initiation, they begin a process of learning in which they are removed from everyday societal life and given special individual instruction by the current healer. However, the early signs of initiation keep to the universal themes of illness and dreams/trances in which their spirit guide first makes contact.

Shamanic Healing Practices

            The basis of shamanic healing in Africa involves appealing to the spirits for aid; the shaman may seeks a diagnosis of a particular ailed individual, the nature of the illness, a means to cure it, or perhaps to appease a dissatisfied spirit. The shaman may also look for the source of conflict or a breach of moral code within a community if there is illness present. The ways in which this appeal is accomplished varies throughout African societies, but there are indeed some commonalities to be noted.

The use of ritual in healing is one of the most universal aspects of shamanic healing in Africa. The ritual is usually performed by the shaman and draws together a large group to carry out the rites as necessary. As explained in Shamanism: An Encyclopedia of World Beliefs, Practices and Culture:

“These rituals often consist of song, drumming, clapping, dance, the use of medicines, and a variety of performances to bring the spirit strongly into the midst of the people so that it is able to help…these acts insure the necessary connection with the spirit world” (Turner 887).

As will be documented in the closer analyses of various healing systems, this ritual often takes form as a trance dance. This label refers to a trance that the shaman enters during the ritual in which he reaches the supernatural realm and thus achieves a means of communication with the spirits. This practice is also referred to as a spirit journey in certain communities, although spirit journeys may also be performed privately by the shaman and do not require a ritual setting. With this spiritual connection through trance, the shaman is able to obtain the necessary information from the spirits to alleviate the affliction or source of conflict within the community.

            Secondly, many shamans keep a receptacle of some sort in which they hold divine objects, medicines, and objects of power used in healing practices. The divine objects are often objects from nature, such as animal bones, shells, rattles, beads, charms, the state of an animal’s entrails, nuts from trees, carved figurines, etc.:

“These objects or circumstances tell the diviner of the nature of the trouble the sick person is suffering, whether it is from ancestor affliction or from witchcraft, what steps the relatives should take, or whether they should undertake a ritual appealing to the ancestor spirits” (Turner, 888).

As for medicine, the ingredients and rituals used by the shamans “have been shown to them by their spirits. Part of the power of the herbal substances derives from their spiritual quality and part from what the West may recognize as their medicinal value. The two values are blended in one” (Turner, 887).  Furthermore, these medicines often include substances of animal, vegetable and mineral origin. In some societies, as will be outlined in the specific healing systems referenced in the rest of this work, the role of the herbalist and diviner are not found in the same person, but are instead delegated to separate individuals. However, the relationship still consists of a diviner who is told the nature of the illness through communication with the spirits and, and the herbalist who is relayed this information via the diviner and given any direct instruction from the spirits on preparing the medicine.

Shaman-Patient Relationship

       

     Perhaps one of the most interesting aspects of the shamanic healing system is the dynamic that exists between the practitioner and the patient. Only through this dynamic can we understand how efficacy is determined and understood in shamanic societies. First, it is crucial to understand how the rest of the community views the shaman. While this differs from culture to culture, there are some aspects that remain consistent: spirits are deeply respected due to their intervening nature in societal affairs. Because the shaman has a direct line of communication with the spirits, they have the potential to influence this spiritual power and knowledge that is unattainable by the rest of the community (Turner, 888). Therefore, the shaman maintains a position of high respect, power, and prestige, without garnering privilege or influence. This respect and prestige is further heightened by the shaman’s ability to apply his unique knowledge in intuitive, medicinal ways, as described in the Encyclopedia of Shamanism:

            “A shaman has wisdom and is able to “tune in” and intuit the nature of an illness and the state of the sick person. The shaman has modesty and does not claim responsibility for cures, but ascribes them to the spirits concerned…” (Turner, 887).

Therefore the shaman fulfills a healing role strengthened by his connection with the spirits and safeguarded by his humbleness and lack of privilege. This is crucial for understanding the patient-practitioner dynamic because it demonstrates that the shaman can be trusted in these interactions.

            The patient-shaman dynamic is further understood when J.L.M. Dawson emphasizes, in his essay on Traditional Concepts of Mental Health in Sierra Leone that the shaman must go beyond merely treating the physical manifestations of illness. This is emphasized in the close analyses of many shamanic societies in the rest of this work and is thus an important focus in determining efficacy.

            To begin this process, the shaman first acknowledges the physical manifestation of an illness and consults the spirits, or uses previously determined knowledge from them about the nature of the illness. While the nature may be a direct grievance between spirit and individual, the shaman must also consider the influence of environmental, familial, and social factors on community harmony in determining the source of affliction. Only by completely understanding the source of illness can the shaman provide a proper method of treatment. Therefore, as Dawson points out in his essay:

“Where initial causation is attributed to social complications, treatment of physical and psychological symptoms will be of no value…Traditional treatment is thus effective in these cases because the practitioner is dealing with the complete man as a total entity, treating physical, psychological, and social symptoms” (4).

The shaman treating the patient as a “total entity” thus fosters a more successful practitioner-patient interaction and demonstrates an all-encompassing understanding of the nature of illness. These characteristics of the relationship between patient and healer are crucial because they determine how the patient will internalize the shaman’s effort and ultimately influence the efficacy of the healing.

Efficacy

            Finally, we must understand how the efficacy of various shamanic healing systems is created and determined. As previously discussed, there are many societal factors that influence the patient-practitioner interaction and these are crucial to recognize if we are to understand how efficacy is internalized. If the shaman garners enough respect and prestige in the community, then a patient will see him expecting to be healed of their affliction. As the shaman seeks assistance from the spirits, the divine ruler of societal affairs, his healing ability is strengthened in the eyes of the patient. The shaman then goes on to consider the various aspects of the person’s life including what other factors may be negatively influencing them. From this, the shaman draws conclusions to diagnose and prescribes a healing process that will treat all potential aspects of their discomfort. Thus, it is easy to see how the process would shape the patient’s perception of the interaction and how they may be influenced to believe that the treatment will work. From there the patient embarks on a treatment plan that may alleviate their physical manifestations as well as treating the social causes. Efficacy in shamanic healing systems is thus based in the belief that spirits have power over society and that accessing, interpreting, and controlling this power to provide all-encompassing treatment carries a lot of respect, trust, and prestige. That is the role of the shaman, as will be discussed in more specific instances throughout the rest of this work.